Language Analysis of Film: Directive Illocutionary Acts

Language Analysis of Film: Directive Illocutionary Acts BY MORTEN TYLDUM ABSTRACT This assignment is entitled A study of Directive Illocutionary Acts in Passengers Movie Script by Morten Tyldum. It is aimed at describing forms and meanings of Jims utterances based on Vandervekens theory by using descriptive method. In the collecting data, I follows three stages. Those are data selection, data collection, and data classification. The selection stage was done by searching the movie script as the data source, the data collection covers collecting the data from Jims utterances in the movie script, and the data classification includes gathering Jims utterances which contain Directive Illocutionary Act. In analyzing the data, I follows several stages. They are: founding categorizing, describing, and qualifying the utterances found in the data. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Background of the Study Language is used as a means of communication where people use it as a tool to express their ideas and wishes. According to Ramelan (1991: 8), Language can help man to express his ideas and wishes to another such as when he needs some helps, so that close relationship among members of the group can be carried out. All human beings use language to interact with other members of the same speech community. It can be said that language plays an important role as a means of communication. According to Chaer Augustin (2004: 17), Communication is a process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbol, sign or behavior. Therefore, language is an important tool in communication process: participant (at least two people or a group), topic (what is talking about), and means of communication (symbol, sign, etc.). Speech acts is the study of the meaning and the function of an utterance. The speech is used to clarify what the speaker does. Austin (1965: 108) in his book How to Do Things with Words, mention three types of speech acts; they are Locutionary Act, Illocutionary Act, and Perlocutionary Act. The Locutionary Act refers to the referential or factual meaning of the sentence: that is the literal meaning of the actual words. When we say,Im hungry, this utterance refers to the condition of the speaker which is hungry with no intention of ordering the hearer to give the speaker some food. The Illocutionary Act refers to the speakers intention in uttering the words (such as a request to close the door, or an offer of something). When we say, its very hot here, the speaker has some intention to order the hearer to open the window or to turn on the air conditioner. The Perlocutionary Act refers to the effect this utterance has on the thoughts or actions of the other person such as someone actually closing the door or helping them to the food. When we say, there is snake next to you! this sentence brings an effect to the hearer like screaming or running. This sentence has perlocutionary effect to the hearer. Movie script is a means of communication for an artist or a script writer to express their ideas. It can be in the form of written language. In spoken language, utterance makes the movie very clear. In addition, the utterance of speech act also describes or tells the viewers what the actors do in the movie. The object of this research is a movie entitled Passengers. I analyze this movie because in a movie I find out many Directive Illocutionary Acts in its script as well as to know the meaning of the utterance used in Illocutionary Act, because movie closer in daily conversation appeals of interview and talk show. 1.2 Statement of the Problem The problem of this study can be stated as follows: What the Directive Illocutionary Acts are found in the Passengers movie script? What are the meanings of the Illocutionary Acts the Passengers movie script? 1.3 Scope of the Study This study is focuses on the Illocutionary Act especially Directive Illocutionary Act in Jims utterances as the first character in the movie Passengers. In analyzing the Directive Illocutionary Act I use theory of Illocutionary Forces by Vanderveken. Objective of the Study The objectives of the study are: To identify Directive Illocutionary Acts in the Passengers movie script. To describe the meanings of utterance in Illocutionary Force found in the Passengers movie script.   CHAPTER II RESEARCH METHOD Research Design Based on the problem analysis, this research uses descriptive research because it is aimed to identify the kinds of speech, especially Directive Speech Act. According to Isaac and Michael (1987: 18), descriptive method is the method purpose is to describe systematically the facts and characteristics of a given population or area of interest, factually and accurately. About this kind of research, Mardalis (1989: 26) says that, descriptive research does not test a hypothesis or use a hypothesis; it merely describes information according to variables that are observed. By using descriptive method, this study identifies the kinds of Illocutionary Act focusing on Directive Speech Act and their functions. This study took the data from the movie script Passengers by Morten Tyldum. Unit of Analysis The unit of analysis of this study is all utterances in Passengers movie script. Source of Data I took the data from the movie script Passengers by Morten Tyldum as the source of the data. The data of this study were taken from the internet website www.dailyscript.com. Technique of Data Collection In the methodology of collecting the data, I used documentation method. Documentation method is looking for the data about things or variables which are in the form of notes, transcription, book, newspaper, magazine, leafs etc. (Arikunto, 2002: 206). I used the movie script to collect the data. In this research, I get the data through some phases. First, I search for the Passengers movie script in the internet. Second, I watch the Passengers movie to comprehend the utterances. Third, I collect the data from the movie script that contains Directive Speech Act. Finally, I select the speakers utterances that contain Directive Speech Act. Technique of Data Analysis The techniques of data analysis are as follows: Finding the Speakers utterances in the form of Directive Illocutionary Act. Categorizing the speakers utterances based on the function of Directive Illocutionary Act such as asking, requesting, begging, and commanding. Describing the meaning in the utterances of Passengers Movie Scripts. Qualifying the utterances that contain directive speech acts. CHAPTER III DATA ANALYSIS The Directive Illocutionary Acts in Jims Utterances There are 16 utterances containing Directive Illocutionary Acts. Those are Asking (6), Commanding (3), Suggesting (2), Requesting (2), Adjuring (1), Begging (1) Forbidding (1). The Directive Illocutionary Acts found in the Passengers Movie Script is presented in the following table: Table 3.1 No. Directive Illocutionary Amount Percentage (%) 1 Asking 6 37,5 % 2 Commanding 3 18,75% 3 Requesting 2 12, 5% 4 Suggesting 2 12,5% 5 Begging 1 6, 25% 6 Adjuring 1 6, 25% 7 Forbidding 1 3, 25% TOTAL 16 100% From the table above, it can be seen that Asking is the most often Directive Illocutionary Act used by Jim. Jim likes to ask someone who is related with his business for the sake of himself. The Meaning of Jims Utterances There are seven Directive Illocutionary Act used by Jim. The following sub chapter describe Directive Illocutionary Act what Jims meant by using those seventh. 3.2.1 Asking There are 6 Asking Directive Illocutionary Acts that are found in Jims utterances. Excerpt. 1 Speech event: Jane is waiting in the spacecratf, making no attempt to hide. Jim: Joost. Jane: Long time, mate. Jim: Hows Alice? Jane: Well, thanks. The Directive Illocutionary Act is asking and the meanings of the utterance are: The point of illocution of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) asks to the hearer (Jane) about condition. The mode of achievement of the utterance is that the hearer (Jane) can give the answer of the speakers (Jim) question. The propositional content of the utterance shows that the speaker (Jim) asks to the hearer (Jane) to answer the Alices condition as the answer of his question. The preparatory condition of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) believes that the hearer (Jane) can answer his question. The sincerity condition of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) really hopes that the hearer (Jane) can explain How Alice is condition now. The degree of strength of the utterance shows that the speakers (Jim) seriousness to get the explanation from the hearer (Jane). Excerpt. 2 Jim: Tim must be in college. Jane: Big kids, big problem you know. Jim: Companys doing well? Jane: Cant complain. Eleven wars on the continent, business is brisk. (Looks at him) Speech event: Heard you had a bit of trouble in the bush. The Directive Illocutionary Act is asking and the meanings of the utterance are: The point of Illocution of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) asks the hearer (Jane) about something (the condition of company). The mode of achievement of the utterance is that the hearer (Jane) can give explanation to the speakers (Jim) question. The propositional content of the utterance shows that the speaker (Jim) asks the hearer (Jane) to explain their companys condition as the answer of his question. The preparatory condition of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) believes that the hearer (Jane) can answer his question. The sincerity condition of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) really asks and really hopes the hearer (Jane) to explain the condition of their company. The degree of strength of the utterance shows that Jim just needs the answer from Jane it shows Jims seriousness to get the explanation from Jane. Excerpt. 3 Speech event: When Jim talks with the bartender, suddenly Fawaz approaches him. He is a nervous wreck. Fawaz: Oh, my God, are you all right? Jim: Wheres the farmer? Fawaz: He found a job at a hotel. Spends all his time at the refugee offices. Not exactly the behavior of a man in possession of a priceless stone. The Directive Illocutionary Act is asking and the meanings of the utterance are: The point of illocution of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) asks to the hearer (Fawaz) about something (the existence of someone). The mode of achievement of the utterance is that the hearer (Fawaz) can give the answer of the speakers (Jim) question. The propositional content of the utterance shows that the speaker (Jim) asks to the hearer (Fawaz) to answer the existences of someone as the answer of his question. The preparatory condition of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) believes that the hearer (Fawaz) can answer his question. The sincerity condition of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) really hopes that the hearer (Fawaz) can explain where is the farmer now. The degree of strength of the utterance shows that the speakers (Jim) seriousness to get the explanation from the hearer (Fawaz). Excerpt. 4 Speech event: Jim lights a cigarette. Aurora appears and stands quietly beside him. Together they watch the distant explosions. Auora : I didnt actually hurt your feelings? Speech event: He takes a long drag. Exhales. Jim : How long you been in Africa? Auora : Four months. Before that Kosovo. The Directive Illocutionary Act is asking and the meanings of the utterance are: The point of illocution of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) asks to the hearer (Auora) about something (the time that she leaves). The mode of achievement of the utterance is that the hearer (Auora) can give the answer of the speakers (Jim) question. The propositional content of the utterance shows that the speaker (Jim) asks to the hearer (Auora) to answer the time that she leaves as the answer of his question. The preparatory condition of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) believes that the hearer (Auora) can answer his question. The sincerity condition of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) really hopes that the hearer (Auora) can answer how long she leaves in Africa. The degree of strength of the utterance shows that the speakers (Jim) seriousness to get the answer from the hearer (Auora). Excerpt. 5 Speech event: Auora is waiting as Jim walks back. Jim: How is he? Auora: They say hell live. The Directive Illocutionary Act is asking and the meanings of the utterance are: The point of illocution of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) asks to the hearer (Auora) about the condition. The mode of achievement of the utterance is that the hearer (Auora) can give the answer of the speakers (Jim) question. The propositional content of the utterance shows that the speaker (Jim) asks to the hearer (Auora) to answer the soldier condition as the answer of his question. The preparatory condition of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) believes that the hearer (Aurora) can answer his question. The sincerity condition of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) really hopes that the hearer (Aurora) can explain How is the soldier now. The degree of strength of the utterance shows that the speakers (Jim) seriousness to get the explanation from the hearer (Aurora). Excerpt. 6 Speech event: They have been walking for twelve hours. Jim has to sit. Jim: How much farther- -? Solomon: One day more. Speech event: He kneels before Jim. The Directive Illocutionary Act is asking and the meanings of the utterance are: The point of illocution of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) asks to the hearer (Solomon) about something (the time). The mode of achievement of the utterance is that the hearer (Solomon) can give the answer of the speakers (Jim) question. The propositional content of the utterance shows that the speaker (Jim) asks to the hearer (Solomon) to answer the time that he reached as the answer of his question. The preparatory condition of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) believes that the hearer (Solomon) can answer his question. The sincerity condition of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) really hopes that the hearer (Solomon) can answer how much farther the place that their reached. The degree of strength of the utterance shows that the speakers (Jim) seriousness to get the answer from the hearer (Solomon). 3.2.2 Commanding There are 3 Commanding Directive Illocutionary Acts that are found in Jims utterances and here is the analysis Excerpt. 7 Speech event: Three cut down trucks of Rebels SQUEAL into view and begin spraying everything with automatic weapons. Jim: Yes or no? Speech event: A whole life can change with a single syllable. Solomon: Yes. Speech event: A truck comes careening around the corner. Jim pushes Solomon as the wall behind them is stitched with bullets. Jim: Go. Go!! Speech event: They begin to run. The Directive Illocutionary Act is commanding and the meanings of the utterance are: The point of illocution of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) asks to the hearer (Solomon) to do something (to run). The mode of achievement of the utterance is shows that the hearer (Solomon) can give the respond to the speakers (Jim) wants. The propositional content of the utterance shows that the speaker (Jim) is commanding to the hearer (Solomon) for getting what he wants (to run). The preparatory condition of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) believes that the hearer (Solomon) can respond his command. The sincerity of condition of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) really hopes to the hearer (Solomon) can achieve his command. The degree of strength of the utterance is shows the speakers (Jim) seriousness to get respond from the hearer (Solomon). Excerpt. 8 Speech event: Jim seizes the moment sending an OPEN-HAND STRIKE to the throat of his would-be executioner, then grabbing the AK-47, and shooting him before ripping the gun out of his hands. Jim : STAY DOWN!! Speech event: Solomon remains flattened behind the tree stump, head down. The Directive Illocutionary Act is commanding and the meanings of the utterance are: The point of illocution of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) asks to the hearer (Solomon) to do something (to stay down). The mode of achievement of the utterance is shows that the hearer (Solomon) can give the respond to the speakers (Jim) wants. The propositional content of the utterance shows that the speaker (Jim) is commanding to the hearer (Solomon) for getting what he wants. The preparatory condition of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) believes that the hearer (Solomon) can respond his command. The sincerity of condition of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) really hopes to the hearer (Solomon) can achieve his command. The degree of strength of the utterance is shows the speakers (Jim) seriousness to get respond from the hearer (Solomon). Excerpt. 9 Speech event: Behind them, the jungle erupts with gunfire Solomon throws Dia to the ground. Jim takes cover four mercenaries are advancing. Jim Return Fire, hitting two. The others hit the ground. Jim : MOVE, MOVE, MOVE!!! Speech event: He shoves Solomon and Dia to their feet. The Directive Illocutionary Act is commanding and the meanings of the utterance are: The point of illocution of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) asks to the hearer (Solomon and Dia) to do something (to Move). The mode of achievement of the utterance is shows that the hearer (Solomon and Dia) can gives the respond to the speakers (Jim) wants (to move). The propositional content of the utterance shows that the speaker (Jim) is commanding to the hearer (Solomon and Dia) for getting what he wants. The preparatory condition of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) believes that the hearer (Solomon and Dia) can respond his command. The sincerity of condition of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) really hopes to the hearer (Solomon and Dia) can achieve his command. The degree of strength of the utterance is shows the speakers (Jim) seriousness to get respond from the hearer (Solomon and Dia). 3.2.3 Requesting There are 2 requesting Directive Illocutionary Acts that are found in Jims utterances and here are the analysis: Excerpt. 10 Speech event: Jim has already begun heading toward Aurora. She sees him coming and watches him walk toward her. They meet in the middle of a crowded dance floor. All around them, sweaty bodies are swaying to the African beat. Aurora : I supposed to kiss you or fuck you? I cant remember. Jim : How about you dance with me? Aurora : Should I ask what happened to your face? Speech event: He takes her hand and leads her into the surging crowd. Aurora : I guess not. Speech event: They dance as best they can in the crush. The Directive Illocutionary Act is requesting and the meanings of the utterance are: The point of illocution of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) request to the hearer (Aurora) to do something (to dance together). The mode of achievement of the utterance is that the hearer (Aurora) can gives the speaker (Jim) permission to dance. The propositional content of the utterance shows that the speaker (Jim) request to the hearer (Aurora) to dance together. The preparatory condition of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) believes that the hearer (Aurora) can meet his request. The sincerity condition of the utterance shows that Jim really hopes that Aurora wants to dance with him. The degree of strength of the utterance show Jims seriousness to asks for Auroras permission. Excerpt. 11 Speech event: Jim smiles Auora: Its a world phone, by the way. Jim: You should get on the plane. Aurora: So should you? Speech event: He smiles and turns away. Aurora: are you going to call me? Jim: soon as Im near a phone. Aurora: Yeah, right. The Directive Illocutionary Act is requesting and the meanings of the utterance are: The point of illocution of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) wants the hearer (Aurora) to do something. The mode of achievement of the utterance is that the hearer (Aurora) can give the speaker (Jim) wants. The propositional content of the utterance shows that the speaker (Jim) asks the hearer (Aurora) to get on the plane. The preparatory condition of the utterance is that Jim believes that Aurora can do his request. The sincerity condition of the utterance shows that Jim really hopes that Aurora will get on the plane. The degree of strength of the utterance shows Jim s seriousness to ask for Aurora to get on the plane. 3.2.4 Suggesting There are 2 Suggesting Directive Illocutionary Acts that are found in Jims utterances and here is the analysis: Excerpt. 12 Speech event: The troop leader takes out knife and cut into the stitches. The goat squeals a little and kicks angrily. From under the goats skin, he takes a dozen small, rough DIAMONDS. The troop leader draws his .45 on Jim. Troop Leader: You are under arrest for smuggling. Jim: Now you listen here, my man. I am a good friend of Minister Somora. He will not be pleased you have interfered with his business. Speech event: Clearly the name of Minister Samora carries some weight. Jim (contd): You know who I am, dont you? What I am? I dont think you want to mess with me. or my friends, eh? (changes his tack) How about I just look the other way and you pocket one or two of those stone. Buy something nice for the wife. Or maybe the mistress, eh? (Re the shepherds) Whos going to tell? Them? Speech event: The shepherds look, uncertain, from Jim to the Soldier. Troop Leader: No. The Directive Illocutionary Act is suggesting and the meanings of the utterance are: The point of illocution of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) suggest to the hearer (Troop Leader) to do something (to do suggestion). The mode of achievement of the utterance is shows that the speaker (Jim) gives the option to refuse or receive to the hearer (Troop Leader) can not achieve the speakers (Jim) wants. The propositional content of the utterance is that the happiness acts to the hearer (Troop Leader). The speakers (Jim) suggest the hearer to pocket the stone and buy something nice for his wife. The preparatory condition of the utterance is shows that the speaker (Jim) believes that the hearer (Troop Leader) can achieve his request. The sincerity of condition of the utterance shows that the speaker (Jim) really hopes to the hearer (Troop Leader) can achieve his request. The degree of strength of the utterance is shows the speakers (Jim) seriousness to the hearer (Troop Leader) in order to receive his suggestion. Excerpt. 13 Speech event: Jim and Aurora has been talked about himself. Aurora : Somehow I dont take you as the UNICEF type. Speech event: Jim just smiles. Aurora (contd): I was going to say soldier-of- fortune but its such a clichà ©. Jim: How about hired gun. People seem to like that one. Aurora: Diamonds? Jim: what if I told you I was a missionary. Aurora: (Laugh) For Dewente? Jim: Its not just rude to ask those kinds of questions, Ms. Bowen, its also dangerous. Aurora: Ill take my chances.(leans closer) Sotell me about blood diamonds. Speech event: And then, suddenly, Jim gets it. His face turns to stone. The Directive Illocutionary Act is suggesting and the meanings of the utterance are: The point of illocution of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) suggest to the hearer (Aurora) about something. The mode of achievement of the utterance is shows that the speaker (Jim) gives the option to refuse or receive to the hearer (Aurora) can not achieve the speakers (Jim) wants. The propositional content of the utterance shows that the speakers (Jim) suggest the hearer (Aurora) to doing what he wants. The preparatory condition of the utterance is shows that the speaker (Jim) believes that the hearer (Aurora) can achieve his request. The sincerity of condition of the utterance shows that the speaker (Jim) really hopes to the hearer (Aurora) can achieve his request. The degree of strength of the utterance is shows the speakers (Jim) seriousness to the hearer (Aurora) in order to receive his suggestion. 3.2.5 Begging There are 1 Begging Directive Illocutionary Acts that are found in Jims utterances and here is the analysis: Excerpt. 14 Speech event: Looks over at Solomon who has his arm protectively around Dia. The boy looks like the same innocent child he once was. Jim: Take your boy home. Speech event: Solomon looks back at him, tears in his eyes. He nods. In deep and simple gratitude. Jim nods back. Then Jim: Help me. Speech event: He struggles to pick up the machine gun. Solomon puts it into his hands. Jim: Put the strapover my shoulder. Speech event: Solomon helps secure it in place. The Directive Illocutionary Act is Begging and the meanings of the utterance are: The point of illocution of the utterance is that the speaker (Jim) begs the hearer (Solomon) to do something (to take his boy). The mode of achievement of the utterance is shows that the speaker (Jim) wants the hearer (Solomon) to take his boy home. The propositional content of the utterance shows that the speaker (Jim) is begging to the hearer (Solomon) for getting what he wants. The preparatory condition of the utterance is shows that the speaker (Jim) is begging to the hearer (Solomon) as the effect of his need. The sincerity condition of the utterance shows that the speaker (Jim) is sincere in begging to the hearer (Solomon) because the speaker (Jim) really wants something to the hearer. The degree of strength of the utterance is increasing the speaker (Jim) shows that he really means it in begging to the hearer. 3.2.6 Adjuring There are 1 Adjuring Directive Illocutionary Acts that are found in Jims utterances and here is the analysis: Excerpt. 15 Speech event: The sound of gunfire ECOMOG troops have seen something in the tree-line and have begun exchanging fire. Jim : Hurry it up, folks! Unless you want to end up the same way! Speech event: Solomon cant move, just stares at the boy and mother. The Directive Illocutionary Act is Adjuring and the meanings of the utte Development of the Christian Personality: Theories Development of the Christian Personality: Theories Christian Personality Development: From the Womb to the Tomb Michelle L. Stelly Abstract Research done using various peer-reviewed journal articles, a theory of personality based on Christianity is proposed. Research has shown that all development, including personality, is influenced even prior to conception based on how the future mother takes care of herself prior to implantation. It is necessary for expectant mothers to keep their stress, anxiety and depression at a minimum not just for their own health but the future mental health of their unborn child. It is the parent(s) duty to nurture all facets of the child all the way through adolescence, as prescribed by the Bible. Physical health is equally as important to personality development as mental healthcare. People have times in life when they have an apparent shift in their personality and this is all a part of development. Many have speculated about why one person grew up to one way while another became another. Empirical studies of moral personality development will be continuous to show how using an integrative structure for examining personality can readily unite Christianity and psychology. Keywords: development, infant, mother, Bible, parents Christian Personality Development: From the Womb to the Tomb Personality develops over an entire lifespan and when done according to God’s plan life is much more enjoyable. Canonical correlation analysis showed that â€Å"more religious individuals are healthier in general, which might be supported at least circumstantially by the results reported here. It makes good sense that if people have both a spiritual and a natural essence that these dimensions would be interactive† (Simpson, Newman Fuqua, 2007). Integrating psychology with biblical studies, much like done at Liberty University, will provide guidance of God’s people according to His Word in developing healthy personalities. Foundations of Personality According to Feist, Feist, and Roberts (2013), there are differing definitions of personality and each is dependent upon the theorist’s part of the world, religious experiences, and many from their time as psychotherapists (pp. 3-4). In general, personality can be defined as â€Å"a pattern of relatively permanent traits and unique characteristics that give both consistency and individuality to a person’s behavior (Roberts Mroczek, 2008)† (Feist, Feist Roberts, 2013, p. 4). In a few ways we are all the same. We all have the same personal inclinations and share a basic nature of being. We all have physical bodies and personalities and we all have thoughts and feelings. Personality is made up of various traits and each arrangement is unalike for every individual. It comes from within the person and usually remains unchanged throughout life. Nature versus Nurture Nature and nurture are both important but not interchangeable. Biology plays a huge role in personality development. Nature is the first influence on personality development as it begins in a person’s DNA. Nurture takes place after birth and is impacted by a person’s environment. Hans J. Eysenck noted three findings as evidence that personality is 75% hereditary and 25% a result of environmental influences (Feist, Feist Roberts, 2013, p. 411). Eysenck noted that research done by Robert R. McCrae and Juri Allik regarding â€Å"the five-factor model of personality across cultures† done in 2002 showed nearly identical personality traits among persons in difference parts of the world such as Uganda, Russia, and Japan (Feist, Feist Roberts, 2013, p. 411). Another piece of evidence from Eysenck’s own 1990 study that showed a â€Å"higher concordance between identical twins than between same-gender fraternal twins reared together† which suggests that heredity plays a dominant role in determining personality differences (Feist, Feist Roberts, 2013, p. 411). Personality develops from birth on. There are certain aspects of human behavior that come from human nature. Humans have natural instincts to find nutritional sustenance, seek out love and affection, and ask for help with the things they cannot do for themselves. From birth until the beginning of school age, which varies from child to child but is usually around age four or five, caretakers may notice certain behavioral traits which may mimic a personality type but essentially no permanent type has yet been established. Starting around age five until around age eleven people begin to develop the dominant personality traits begin to form and it becomes apparent as to how the child learns, such as if they are auditory or visual learners and if they work well in groups on solitary. From around age twelve or thirteen, when they are entering adolescence, traits that support the dominant feature begin to appear: how they make decisions, what they value in life, and their perception of things. Starting around age twenty, adults start to learn how their personality traits fit in with the rest of the world. This becomes very apparent when peers become coworkers rather than fellow students. For some people, sometime between the ages of 35 and 50, people may hit what is called a â€Å"mid-life crisis† because they begin to see facets of their life that they did not develop and feel a strong desire to satisfy these. After around age 50, the personality is more disciplined that those of younger stages and this is usually due to life experiences. The Unconscious. Carl Jung stated â€Å"There are certain events of which we have not consciously taken note; they have remained, so to speak, below the threshold of conscious. They have happened, but they have been absorbed subliminally† (Mlodinow, 2012, p.5). Influences that we are not consciously cognizant of influence our actions. Dream content has been shown to be a reflection of people’s view on religion. Disagreeing with the normal thought that Christianity and science â€Å"inevitably conflict with each other, dreaming offers an area of potential religion–science convergence† (Bulkeley, 2009). View of Self. â€Å"Different aspects of the self emerge in different periods of the lifespan† (Klimstra, 2012). However, once new aspects of the self emerge, existing aspects do not finish growing. Therefore, it is important to consider several aspects of the self. Neuroscientists have performed studies using human brain mapping and have concluded that â€Å"People who endorse individualistic cultural values showed greater MPFC [medial prefrontal cortex] activation to general self-descriptions, whereas people who endorse collectivistic cultural values showed greater MPFC activation to contextual self-descriptions† (Chiao, Harada, Komeda, Li, Mano, Saito, Parrish, Sadato, Iidaka 2009). Personality types. The personality can be assessed using the Myers-Brigs Personality Type Indicator (based on the theories of Carl Jung). According to this instrument, there sixteen personality types made up of four criteria. (E)xtraversion versus (I)ntraverson give a clue of if the person is focused on the outside world or only their inner circles. How they process information by either by way of the five senses (S)ensing or if they look for patterns ntuition. People make decisions by either (T)hinking or by (F)eeling. Finally, the test also measures how people prefer to live in the outside world, structured which is called (J)udging or more flexible, (P)erceiving. An example of personality type would be INFJ who is described as Seek meaning and connection in ideas, relationships, and material possessions. Want to understand what motivates people and are insightful about others. Conscientious and committed to their firm values. Develop a clear vision about how best to serve the common good. Organized and decisive in implementing their vision (Briggs-Myers, 2013). Progression of Personality Although more research is needed, there has been a link found between depressive as well as anxiety disorders in the mother prior to conception and the onset of depressive disorders and more severe anxiety disorders (Martini, et al., 2013). Progression is expected to flow in a basic manner, beginning in infancy, and personality development progresses based on modeling of caregiver’s examples. By the time the person reaches school age, people begin to progress to the next stage of internalizing all they absorbed in early childhood. Progression to maturity is exhibited by awareness of not only the self but of others and how the two work together. Life has progresses to a deeper meaning. Once a person reaches the last stage of personality progression, development slows down and people become more passive. Dementia is something people fear because it represents personality changes, even at a mild stage, and this change is intimidating, especially to the elderly experiencing it. Motivation People are striving to accomplish self efficacy as a result of their behavior. They decide what they should strive for based upon what will allow for them to satisfy their basic needs for love and acceptance and this can often be caused by how they are taught to internalize as well as environmental factors such as a desire to move out of an impoverished neighborhood. A person is motivated by desiring a sense of security and a lack of pain. â€Å"Motivation at work is not always conditioned by external environment. However, it is more governed by internal worldones own orientation† (Sengupta, 2011). Classroom activity has been shown to have an impact on motivation as well. Students are motivated either by making the best grades possible or doing enough just to not fail. Self-motivation is probably the strongest form of motivation and this is seen in school aged children. People are motivated by control and whether they realize it or not by challenges. Curiosity is a huge motivator as well. Maturation. Maturity happens primarily in adolescence when a child develops a sense of self separate from their parental unit. There are differences between genders as to when this happens and overall girls mature earlier than boys (Klimstra, Hale, III, Raajimakers, Branje Meeus, 2009). Brain mapping had proven useful in this as well. â€Å"Early prefrontal cortex damage has been associated with developmental deficits in social adaptation, moral behavior, and empathy that alter the maturation of social cognition and social emotions† (Eslinger, Robinson-Long, Realmuto, Moll, deOlivera-Souza, Tovar-Moll, Wang, Yang, 2009). Situations that were ambiguously moral activated considerably more prefrontal lobe activity than did routine moral situations, suggesting the biological nature of personality maturation. The frontal polar stimulation does not change with age and the findings further endorse a substantial role for the medial prefrontal cortex in maturation of the moral decision making process. Personality develops greater maturity as the person ages but self-distinction decreases with age. Biblical Integration Many psychological viewpoints say that man cannot change his personality makeup because it is inbred through evolution. Christians know that personality can change because when they become saved they become a new being. The Holy Spirit is able to defy science and creates a Christian personality that exudes holiness, peace, and happiness. Christians have an advantage in personality development because when they see something not progressing to their liking, they can go to the scriptures to learn to deal with their sinfulness. While the Biblical canon does not go precisely into how each family unit is handled, it does give basic rules that empower one to discover what God expects of his followers. One such rule is prescribed in Luke 2:51, â€Å"And he went down with them, and came to Nazareth, and was subject unto them: but his mother kept all these sayings in her heart† (King James Version). The guideline in this section shows that folks are given the power to coordinate, guide, and instruct and their kids by God. If Jesus allowed himself to be guided and heeded the words of his earthly mother and father, then children today need to allow theirs to do the same because this is to be as He was, and that is what people should strive for. There is the issue of original sin where the sin of Adam and Even is passed on to even the current generation as their offspring. Before the person accepts Jesus Christ as their savior, it is much easier to fall into this sinful nature. Once salvation is received, there is no excuse because the person was to have changed. This affects personality because it creates the trait of hypocrisy. While people are still flesh and blood and cannot be perfect, the Bible gives a clear example of a model for personality development: Jesus Christ. It is crucial that parents involve their children in activities that glorify God. Youth have the right to need sensible direction from their parent(s) and that unit is called upon to nurture their kids. That is, to have their backs, to raise them correctly, in the chastening and admonition of the Lord as stated in Ephesians 6:4 (American Standard Version). That is to mean that parents are be imitators of God in the reprimanding or guidance given to children. It is rebuking or disciplining based upon affection and care that forms the personality once the child is out of the womb. Before then, a parent must keep the word close to them to bless the family unit even before it is conceptualized. Conclusion Personality development starts with the mother. Her mental state before and during her pregnancy and create certain personality traits within her child. Once the child is born, it is the parents God given right and duty to nurture that child in a way that is fitting to God’s path. The home situation, the parental interaction as well as the relationship the child has with the family’s church plays a role in the nurture portion of personality while the traits one picks up during personality development and self-actualization becomes their nature. When a child reaches school age they begin to separate themselves with their parents in that they develop their own identity. It is important that they still have a strong relationship with God because He is the only one that can keep an eye on them all day, every day. When a person reaches the age to move out of their family home and embark on life’s adventures, they are still developing. They are learning just how strong their legs are for them to stand on. It is important for parents not to pick them up every time the fall so that they learn to rely on Jesus. Even until death, the human personality is still evolving. People become more set in their ways as they get older and often grow to dislike the youth and the world around them. The only time the personality stops growing is when the person becomes a nonbeing, be it through disability, coma, or death. Only with such a sturdy footing can buoy the load of the weight of personality development. Without the Bible as a foundation, the edifice would simply breakdown. Through it all, it is imperative there is a strong foundation based on God’s principles. References Briggs-Myers, I. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.myersbriggs.org/my-mbti-personality-type/mbti-basics/the-16-mbti-types.asp Bulkeley, K. (2009). The religious content of dreams: A new scientific foundation. Pastoral Psychology, 58(2), 93-106. doi: 10.1007/s11089-008-0180-8 Chiao, J. Y., Harada, T., Komeda, H., Li, Z., Mano, Y., Saito, D., Parrish, T. B., Sadato, N., Iidaka, T. (2009). Neural basis of individualistic and collectivistic views of self. Human Brain Mapping, 30(9), 2813-2820. doi: 10.1002/hbm.20707 Eslinger, P., Robinson-Long, M., Realmuto, J., Moll, J., deOliveira-Souza, R., Tovar-Moll, F., Wang, J., Yang, Q. (2009). Developmental frontal lobe imaging in moral judgment: Arthur Bentons enduring influence 60 years later. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 31(2), 158-169. doi:10.1080/13803390802298064 Feist, J., Feist, G. J., Roberts, T. (2013). Theories of personality. (8 ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Klimstra, T. A., Hale, III, W. W., Raajimakers, Q. A. W., Branje, S. J. T., Meeus, W. H. J. (2009). Maturation of personality in adolescence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(4), 898-912. doi: 10.1037/a0014746 Klimstra, T. (2013). Adolescent Personality Development and Identity Formation. Child Development Perspectives, 7(2), 80-84.doi:10.1111/cdep.2013.7.issue-2 Martini, J., Wittich, J., Petzoldt, J., Winkel, S., Einsle, F., Siegert, J., Hofler, M., Beesdo-Baum, K., Wittchen, Hans-Ulrich. (2013). Maternal anxiety disorders prior to conception, psychopathology during pregnancy and early infants’ development: a prospective-longitudinal study. Archives of Women, 16(6), 549-560. doi: 10.1007/s00737-013-0376-5 Mlodinow, L. (2012). Subliminal: How your unconscious mind rules your behavior. (p. 5). New York, NY: Random House, Inc. Simpson, D. B., Newman, J. L., Fuqua, D. R. (2007). Spirituality and personality: Accumulating evidence. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 26(1), 33-44. Retrieved from http://p2048-www.liberty.edu.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/docview/237251151?accountid=12085 Sengupta, S. S. (2011). Growth in human motivation: beyond Maslow. Indian Journal of Industrial Relations. , 41(1), 102. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/ps/i.do?id=GALE|A349721391v=2.1u=vic_libertyit=rp=AONEsw=wasid=f413eec1040eb2a4fb3beb04b1bf01a5

Research Papaer Essay

The terms ‘youth’, ‘teenager’, ‘adolescent’, and ‘young people’ are all used to describe people in the phase of life that marks the conversion from childhood to adulthood. While there is universal agreement on the transition from childhood to adolescence, when exactly adolescence ends and adulthood begins is less clear as the stage of adolescence is culture-specific and therefore different in every society. In some cultures, the transition from teenager to adult could be very short, while, in other cultures it could be longer (Govindasamy et al. 2002). The World Health Organization (WHO, 2009) defines ‘adolescents’ as people aged 10-19; ‘youth’ as those aged between 15-24; and ‘young people’ as those aged between 10 and 24 years old and ‘teenager’ as people aged 13-19 years. Traore (2010) agrees that age has been used to differentiate adolescents from teenagers based on their physi cal development. This study, however, prefer to take females in the age group between 13 to 19 years as ‘teenagers’. In this study, the term ‘teenagers’ was used throughout. The incidence of teenage pregnancy remains high around the world. According to Nanda (2006), teenage females give birth to 15 million infants every year. Thus, teenage pregnancy is a concern from both a human rights and a public health perspective. Teenage pregnancy and its effect on teenage motherhood are among the major societal problems confronting the contemporary global community (Gatara & Muriuki, 2005). In Ghana, for example, one report estimates that nearly one-third of the childbirths recorded in public hospitals occurred to women under 19 years of age (Xinhua, 2006). The prevalence is higher in the rural areas and small- to-medium-sized towns which are often under-represented in the hospital birth statistics. A survey conducted by the UN Regional Institute for Population Studies reported that one out of three girls aged 15 to 19 living in Ghana’s Central Region has had a child (Xinhua, 2006). Similar prevalence of teenage pregnancies have been described for other African countries (Mwansa et aI. , 2004). One study in Swaziland found that females aged 15-19 years accounted for 32. per cent of the total fertility (Gule, 2005). Another study reported that females in the same age group contributed 103 births per 1000 women in the Kenya (Gatara ; Muriuki, 2005). It has been estimated that at least one out of twenty girls is likely to give birth during the school-going age. Data for Botswana also show that by 2004, about 25 percent of girls 15-19 years old were already mothers (Curtis, 2008). Two years later, in 2006, 56 per cent of the girls ha d dropped out of secondary schools in the country due to pregnancy (Mashalaba, 2009). On explaining the factors that contribute to teenage pregnancy, (Anderson, 2001) found that in poor neighbourhoods, teenagers experience less control over many aspects of their lives than the non-poor.. Anderson (2001) has further reported that some impoverished teenage girls consider childbirth as a rare source of self-esteem, or a sign of growing up, while sexual conquest brings a feeling of accomplishment to some teenage boys to whom legitimate opportunities may be blocked (Farley, 2005). The discussion of teenage pregnancy and childbirth therefore, tends to characterise the problem as mainly a feature of the poor segment of society. Besides, a literature review (Lewis, 2006; 2009) shows that aside poverty, factors such as early exposure to sexual activity, lack of sex education, weak parental control and supervision, peer pressure, low self-esteem and the need for self-fulfillment are associated with teenage pregnancy. It is in light of these factors that this study seeks to assess the factors that influence teenage pregnancy and their effects in the Sunyani Municipality in order to help policy makers address the problem. 1. 2 Problem Statement Teenage pregnancy has long been a worldwide social and educational concern for the developed, developing and underdeveloped countries. Many countries continue to experience high incidence of teenage pregnancy despite the intervention strategies that have been put in place. In 2000 approximately 530,000 teenagers in the United States became pregnant, out of which 51% gave birth (Coley ; Chase-Lansdale, 2008). Available literature suggests that in Africa, the total fertility rate has declined to an average of 2. 9 children per woman (Dickson, 2002). A decline in fertility rates has been associated with a high use of contraceptives among women and also the legalisation of abortion in most African countries (Swartz, 2002). Despite the decline in the total fertility rate, teenage pregnancy has been found to be significantly high (Dickson, 2002). The high prevalence of teenage pregnancy in societies characterised by poverty, low education, fewer job opportunities and families headed by mothers who gave birth to their first children in adolescence (Dryfoos, 2006; Macleod, 2009). Teenage pregnancy is also associated with other problematic behaviours such as alcohol and drug use, and early initiation of sexual activity, which have been identified as predictors of pregnancy (Coley ; Chase-Lansdale, 2008). Plant and Plant (2002) argue that risk or problem behaviour is associated with social disadvantage, poverty, homelessness, unemployment, bad housing, fragmented family structure and stressful life events. The youth emulate the behaviour of their parents and of their society, thus social and cultural factors influence patterns of risk taking (Plant ; Plant, 2002). The high incidence of teenage pregnancy has become a major societal and educational concern, as it seems to perpetuate poverty and low levels of education (Furstenberg et al. , 2007; Morgan, 2007). Also due to changing social circumstances and values, teenage pregnancy is a tolerated phenomenon in modern Ghanaian society. Social permissiveness towards sex outside marriage, and absence of serious social repercussions like isolation or exclusion following an out of wedlock birth, contribute to the high rate of teenage pregnancy (Parekh ; De La Rey, 2007). It has also been argued by Preston-Whyte and Zondi (2002) that the high value placed on fertility and education encourages adolescent girls to aspire for both motherhood and academic qualifications. The high cultural value placed on education and fertility is seen as a contributory factor to the prevalence of teenage pregnancy (Preston-Whyte ; Zondi, 2002). Education and the link employment prospects enhances the possibility of improved quality of life and thus may be one of the factors that encourage adolescent to continue with school after child birth (Kaufman et al. , 2001). Even though pregnant teenagers may not officially be prevented from remaining at school, realistically, due to the demands of parenting, they may be forced to drop out of school, for example, in instances where there is no one to look after the child while the teenage mother continues with her schooling. Sometimes the pregnant teenager feels isolated from her peers. She may be embarrassed by her condition and have difficulty fitting in with her non-pregnant peers and as a result may drop out of school. Parenting teenagers often have to deal with strained family relationships. Sometimes parents react with anger to the pregnant teenagers. She may be blamed or ostracised for causing a problem (Cervera, 2004). Consequently, she may not get assistance and support from her family members forcing her to drop out of school in order to raise her child. Based on the aforementioned problems and its effect on the teenager, child, family and the society, this study seeks to assess the factors that influence teenage pregnancy and their effects in the Sunyani Municipality in order to help policy makers address the problem. It has been established that there has not been any similar study concerning teenage pregnancy and their effects on teenagers at the Sunyani Zongo community. Although there have been countless cases of teenage pregnancy in the community depriving affected teenagers from furthering their basic education. The aged in the community based on interaction with the researcher revealed that people come to the community to seek the support of the residents in response to their questionnaires, their projects aimed at other relevant community related problems but none of them is focused on teenage pregnancy. 1. 3 Justification of the Study Little attention has been given to psychological variables and processes that predict the occurrence of teenage pregnancy (Coley ; Chase-Lansdale, 2008). Most literature focuses on social factors, which predispose teenagers to falling pregnant. Pregnancy may cause psychological distress, as it is often associated with dropping out of school, either before or shortly after childbirth (Zondi, 2002). Teenage mothers are more likely to present with symptoms of depression when compared with their non-parenting peers and older mothers (Kalil ; Kunz, 2000). The transition to motherhood puts teenagers at a greater risk for psychological distress because they are socially, cognitively and emotionally immature to cope with the demands of motherhood. This study examines the experiences of pregnant learners, both in a scholastic and personal context. It assesses how these learners are affected by the demands of coexisting motherhood and adolescence. There appears to be little research done on how Ghanaian pregnant adolescent learners perceive their situation and how they cope with the demands of adolescence and of motherhood. The results drawn from the study would form a basis for further research on the psychological effects of pregnancy during teenagers and may also be of value to designing intervention strategies. 1. 4 Research Objectives The study focused on the following objectives. 1. 5 General Objective To assess the factors that influence teenage pregnancy and their effects in the Sunyani Municipality (SM) in order to recommend policy actions for policy makers. 1. 5. 1 Specific objectives This study intended: To assess the influence of socio-economic status on teenage pregnancy; To identify the effect of peer pressure on teenage pregnancy; and To examine mass media exposure and its effect on teenage pregnancy. To assess the effects of teenage pregnancy in the Sunyani Municipality. ` To make recommendations based on the findings of the study. . 5 Research Questions Based on the specific objectives of the study, the research seeks answers to the following questions: What is the influence and effects of socio-economic status on teenage pregnancy in the SM? What are the influences and effects of peer pressure on teenage pregnancy in the SM? How does the mass media exposure impact on teenage pregnancy? What are the co nsequences of teenage pregnancy in the Sunyani Municipality? 1. 6 Significance of the Study The outcome of this study will provide useful information about the psychological well-being of pregnant teenagers. This will assist mental health professionals in developing appropriate psycho-educational programmes to address the psychosocial challenges associated with teenage pregnancy and motherhood. Furthermore, the findings of the study will help to inform public debate that could lead to the development of appropriate policies on how to deal with the challenge of teenage pregnancy and motherhood. Also victims of teenage pregnancy will get the opportunity to disclose information about their experiences in order to help in their addressing problems. Considering the nature of this study, including student affairs professionals, counsellors or psychologists, and those interested in woman’s issues would be assisted to identify the factors associated with teenage pregnancy in the Sunyani Municipality and their effects on the teenager, the child and the society. Future researchers, who would study into determinants of teenage pregnancy in the Municipality, would also have a complement or a basis for their literature review. Finally, the research is likely to raise questions leading to further research. 1. 7 Scope of the Study For feasibility purposes, the study focused on how socio-economic status; peer pressure and early exposure to sexual activity by the mass media influence teenage pregnancy and their effects on the teenager, child and the society. The study considered school going teenagers who dropped out of school due to teenage pregnancy in the Sunyani Municipality. In the study, a pregnant teenager was pregnant girl aged 13 to 19 years. Besides, psychological effects in this study referred to the presence of symptoms related to somatic complaints, anxiety and insomnia, social isolation, and depression. The current study focused on pregnant teenagers who were drawn from the Sunyani Municipality who attended antenatal clinic (ANC) at the Sunyani Municipal Hospital (SMH) during the period of data collection. 1. 7 Delimitation Even though the study was carried out in Sunyani Municipality, concentration was on teenagers at Sunyani Zongo community considering the fact that they have stake in the topic understudy. This research was conducted within the following parameters: the influence and effects of socio-economic status on teenage pregnancy: he influence and effects of peer pressure on teenage pregnancy:: the influence and effects of mass media exposure on teenage pregnancy: the consequences of teenage pregnancy on teenagers. 1. 8 Organisation of the Chapters The research is in five different chapters. In the first chapter, an insight is given as to what the study is all about with the statement of research problem, research questions and objectives, significance of the study, limitat ions of the study, and the organization of the essay. In the second chapter, an overview of relevant materials related to the study is discussed. In the third chapter, the researcher presents the methodology used in the study; chapter 4 will focus on the presentation and analysis of data, and the final chapter will look at the conclusions and recommendations. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2. 1 Introduction This chapter reviewed several selected studies which relate to the topic. The chapter focused on literature related to socio-economic status and teenage pregnancy; peer pressure and teenage pregnancy, mass media exposure and teenage pregnancy as well as the effects of teenage pregnancy 2. 2 Socio-economic status and Teenage Pregnancy It has been revealed that teenage pregnancy is often associated with low socio-economic status ( Dryfoos, 2006). Economically disadvantaged teenagers are characterised by low levels of education and lack of employment opportunities (Preston-Whyte & Zondi, 2002). Certain family characteristics have also been identified as factors that put teenagers at risk of becoming pregnant in early life. Factors such as poverty, single parent families –especially the female headed households, poorly educated parents have been associated with teenage pregnancy (Furstenberg et al. , 2007). Teenagers from one-parent headed families are apt to suffer from deprivations that may lead them to seek affection, security and a sense of significance elsewhere (Chillman, 2006). There are two contrasting views on the subject of single parenting. In some sources it is argued that most parenting adolescents have been found to come from impoverished single parent families, which are often headed by a female (Swartz, 2002). In the other source, children raised in single parent families are more likely to have been victims of an unstable family environment, have experienced a divorce or parental conflict (Russell, 2004). Negative family environment plays a major role in contributing to early teenage sexual experience and teenage pregnancy (Cunningham & Boult, 2002; Macleod, 2009). A family’s low economic status with all the factors associated with it, impacts negatively on teenagers’ attitudes towards early pregnancy. Life experiences associated with poverty minimise the perceived repercussions of adolescent pregnancy (Preston-Whyte & Zondi, 2002). Andorka (2008) stated that people with higher income show lower fertility levels at the earlier stage of socioeconomic development than people with lower income. Other basics of economic conditions such as economic security also seem to have a significant influence on teenage pregnancy (Andorka, 2008). A study by Kamal (2009) showed that a significant negative relation was found between teenage motherhood and the wealth index. About three out of four women with a poor wealth index started childbearing before they reached the age of nineteen. Choe et al. (2001) showed that woman’s education was significantly related to the probability of child bearing before the age of 20. The results of a study by Were (2007) also showed that teenage pregnancies were perpetuated by poor educational access as women with low levels of education tended to be the victims of teenage birth. Because educated woman were more likely to participate in the labour force than their uneducated or lower educated counterparts, women who were working also tended to delay their first marriage and first birth compared with those women who were not working. In Ghana, Bogue (2009) argue that education showed a stronger and more consistent relationship with teenage pregnancy. The level of education of women is a socioeconomic indicator which is frequently found to be negatively related to teenage pregnancy. This is because educated women tend to marry and use contraception later compared to women who have a low level of education (Bongaarts, 2008). Furthermore, Cochrane (2009) also stated that education was positively related to more favourable attitudes toward birth control, greater knowledge of contraception, and husband-wife communication. Thus, concerning the context of the study, it assumes that the level of educational attainment of women may affect the timing of childbearing among women. . 3 Peer Pressure and Teenage Pregnancy Preston-Whyte & Zondi (2002) found that schoolmates exerted a lot of pressure on their peers to engage in sexual relations. Some studies have found that teenagers often cite their peers as being of strong influence on their sexual behaviour (Preston-Whyte & Zondi, 2002; Chillman, 2006). Teenagers’ need for approval and a desire to belong to a group makes them vulnerable to peer influence thereby leading to them to teenage pregnancy (Kamal, 2009). Nowadays teenagers’ preferred position is to stay away from their parents, to avoid to be controlled by parents. They rather listen to their peers than to their parents. Bezuidenhout (2002) said that during that time norms and values taught by parents start to fade out and are replaced by liberal sexual values orientated by peers. Preston-Whyte and Zondi (2002) mentioned that peer pressure plays a role in teenage pregnancy. Buga et al. (2006) found that 20% of girls and 10% of boys respectively indicated that they had initiated sexual activity because of peer pressure. Wood et al. (2006) said peer pressure takes a form of exclusionary practices (e. g. sending sexually inexperienced teenagers away when having discussions concerning sexual matters). Again Mfono (2008) indicated that one of the dynamics operative in sexual relations is that girls and young women are under pressure to demonstrate that they are sexually capable of giving birth. Furthermore, Rozakis (2003) believed that many teens are pushed by their friends into doing something they are not ready for, and really do not understand that peer pressure can be a very strong and persuasive force for sexual relations during adolescence. Peer association has been indicated as one of the strongest predictors of adolescent sexual behaviour and teenage pregnancy (DiBlasio & Benda, 2004). Youth that do not engage in sex tend to have friends who also abstain. Those that are sexually active tend to believe that their friends are sexually active as well. Males, particularly those over 16, report more pressure from peers to be sexually active while females report more pressure from partners (Guggino & Ponzetti, 2007). Moore and Rosenthal (2003) pointed to the following ways peer influence can operate: Through sharing of information, which can serve as a guide in decision-making about sex (this may include inaccurate information). Through prevailing attitudes about sexuality (implicitly reflected in their behaviour and serving as a role model or explicitly stated in discussions etc. ). For example, there is some research evidence that the age of first intercourse is related to the perceived peer approval of premarital intercourse (Daugherty & Burger, 2004). 2. 4 Mass media exposure and Teenage Pregnancy Lucas (2004) stated that the age at first marriage is the one of the determinants of fertility and is classed as the intercourse variable. Early entry into marriage or a union is considered to be strongly connected with early child bearing. The supposition is that it will expose women to regular sexual intercourse through the mass media, and therefore increase the possibility of conception (Mahy & Gupta, 2002). Gupta and Leite (2009) stated that access to the media was found to be the most significant predictor of fertility among young adult women in Brazil based on an analysis of DHS data. In this region, the mass media are believed to play an important role in promoting social attitudes about fertility and reproductive behaviours, especially given the country’s linguistic homogeneity (Gupta & Leite, 2009). It can be assumed that women who are used to being exposed to mass media are likely to understand the risks of teenage motherhood, and, as a result, they tend to delay their pregnancies. It is clear from different sources that the media often plays a major role in influencing teenage pregnancy. Parents can hardly consistently monitor what programmes their teenagers are watching. Rozakis (2003) believed that television is the main source of sexual socialization in many teenagers’ lives in the USA. According to A Rozakis (2003), in a single year there were 20, 000 sexual messages on television used to sell almost anything you can imagine: cars, travel, soft drinks, toothpaste, and clothing. Television also shows six times more extramarital sex than sex between husbands and wives. During the absence of any elderly person children become bored and want to experiment with many things including exploring TV channels as source of entertainment. Devenish et al. (2002) agreed that the media also portray sex as fun and exciting. Bezuidenhout (2004) added that sexually arousing material, whether it is on film, in print or set to music, is freely available to the teenager and such information is often presented out of the context of the prescribed sexual norms of that society. Schultz (2004), in his empirical study, suggested that sex educators, social workers, other helping professionals, and parents should work together to counteract distortions that affect adolescents’ sexual development and sexual growth, and professionals and parents need to recognize the reality and power of the media as an influence on sexual growth. All of the above can influence teenager’s behaviour and encourage them to experiment with sex which will lead to unwanted teenage pregnancies (Schultz, 2004). Similarly, Moore and Rosenthal (2003) pointed out that television, films and other forms of media have removed a lot of the mystery surrounding sex by increasingly explicit portrayal of sexual acts, which can provide a model of sexual behaviour. The stereotypic portrayals often do not provide positive role models with hedonistic values rather than responsibility being promoted (e. g. planning for sex being rarely included) (Moore, 2000). According to McCabe (20055), the media’s message is that teenagers should be sexually experienced. 2. 5 Effects of Teenage Pregnancy Teenage pregnancy has been associated with a number of negative effects, hence it is perceived as a social problem (Furstenberg et al. , 2007; Macleod, 2009). In medical literature it has been associated with obstetrics problems such as high infant and maternal mortality, risks of clandestine abortion, delivery complications and low infant birth weight (Dickson, 2002). Other complications for the teenage mother are limited educational opportunities, self-determination and a poor quality of life (Prater, 2002). At the broader social level the high teenage fertility rate has been found to have a negative effect on the economic development (Varga, 2003). Some young mothers do not get support from their families. They may be rejected by their families and blamed for introducing a permanent crisis (Hudson & Ineichen, 2001; Cervera, 2004). In a situation where there was a pre-existing interpersonal problem, there is a potential that tension might be orchestrated (Dryfoos, 2006). Therefore conflict may arise between the pregnant daughter and other members of the family. Some sources have reported positive results, indicating that sometimes a family reorganises itself in order to adjust to the new member of the family (Cervera, 2004). The family may react with dismay or anger when they discover about the pregnancy, but when the baby is born the family may become the source of support for the mother (Moore, 2000). Positive family support has been associated with emotional adjustment and mental stability for both mother and child (Camerana et al. , 2008). According to Kalil and Kunz (20088) young mothers who lived with a supportive family tended to cope better. In the Ghanaian context, a child of an unmarried mother belongs to its mothers’ family (Burman, 2002). It is very unlikely that her family will reject a teenage mother (Kaufman et al. , 2001). Most communities no longer practice acts of exclusion to the unmarried mother and her child (Parekh & De La Rey, 2007). In her review of South African studies on teenage pregnancy, Macleod (20099) stated that teenage mothers reported a perceived improvement in the relationship with their parents. Parents were reported to relate to teenage mothers as adults. Thus parenthood gave the teenage mothers an entry to adulthood (Preston-Whyte & Zondi, 2002). Prater (2002) stated that teenage pregnancy and subsequent parenting could create major obstacles to any learner’s achievements at school. Thus, pregnant learners are impaired by their situation. Even though they have as much potential for academic success as their non-parenting cohorts, there are multidimensional causes for their academic failure. Many investigations have shown that early pregnancy hinders educational attainment. Erikson (2004) reported that teenage mothers exhibited a ‘syndrome of failure’, which included a failure to remain in school. Pregnant learners are more likely to drop out of school for at least an academic year. The dual role of being a mother and a learner is stressful (Parekh & De La Rey, 2007) and impinges on school achievement. School attendance, is also disturbed by such things as babysitting arrangements and the health of the child. Furstenberg et al. (2007) referred to what is termed ‘role overload’. He defined ‘role overload’ as the strain that exists when the teenage mother simultaneously attempts to meet the demands of parenting and schooling. Parenting learners cannot participate in experiences enjoyed by their peers, for example, extra-curricular activities, which can add much value to the total school experience of most teenagers. Despite these hardships schooling emerged as important (Prater, 2002). Depression has been correlated with teenage pregnancy (Hamburg, 2006). Parenting teenagers are more likely to present with higher levels of depression when compared with non-parenting adolescents and older mothers. In most literature psychological distress among adolescent mothers is perceived as resulting from psychosocial stressors related to the adjustment into the role of being the mother (Kalil & Kunz, 2000). In some literature it is argued that teenage girls are predisposed to depression (Galambos, 2004). It is postulated that teenage girls are more prone to experiencing mothers of the same ethnic and socio-economic status had similar findings (Field et al. , 2006; Hudson & Ineichen, 2001). It was found that infants of teenage mothers are more likely to receive less verbal stimulation and to have developmental delays. These negative effects were associated with the fact that teenage mothers had limited knowledge of developmental milestones and held punitive child rearing attitudes. Literature concludes that teenage mothering is contributory to poor cognitive development of the child. Low education levels of the mother, poor socioeconomic status and negative attitudes towards child rearing are correlated with the child’s poor developmental outcome (Field et al. , 2006). Cunningham and Boult (2006) also postulated that the young mother’s immaturity, social inexperience and lack of child rearing skills have a negative effect on the child. The young mother and her off-spring are at a risk of becoming victims of crime like incest, rape, neglect, abuse, family violence and of participation in criminal activities such as drug trafficking, prostitution etc. In the Ghanaian context the teenage mother often resides in her parental home (Preston-Whyte & Zondi, 2002) and the child is often in the care of an adult during the day either the grandmother or at an alternative day care. This implies that the child of a teenager is more than likely to receive parenting from an adult mother figure and to benefit from this interaction (Camerana et al. , 2008). Multiple care giving has also been found to be of benefit for the mother. While an adult is looking after the child, the mother gets the opportunity to attend to other responsibilities thus alleviating the stressors for the mother.

Analysis Of The Movie Eclipsed - 1734 Words

What if everyone was made to pay for their wrongdoings at every instance? Well, if that were to be the case, no one would be free from judgment because everyone makes mistakes. In â€Å"Eclipsed†, Brogan brings to light the pretentious acts of so-called holier-than-thou people. She tells a story about the struggles of women in a society that treated them as evil, bringing to light the fact that everyone in this world needs to re-evaluate their moral standings. One of the main characters, Cathy comes back from a failed escape attempt. The rest of the women are not that surprised. It was as if they had given up knowing that they would be caught. But Cathy has been relentless in risking it all just to escape. Hence, this represents her desperation to be free from that prison-like Magdalen Laundry. These women were once free, but have had their humanity stripped from them all in the name of judgement for their sins. But who gave people the right to place judgment on others in suc h a dehumanizing way? â€Å"Spare the rod and spoil the child†, but first one has to take out the log in one’s eye before thinking about the speck in their brother’s. Brogan succeeds in showing the fact that these women were human, and still had human feelings, desires and actions. But they were being condemned due to their diversion from the societal norm in one aspect of their lives. Interpersonal relations was like a taboo in the Magdalen Laundry. Mother Victoria states, â€Å"Give these letters out at tea-break,Show MoreRelatedNarrative Consequences Of Trade In Mel Gibsons Apocalypto1207 Words   |  5 Pagestime, energy, and resources to acquire valuable commodities to trade for a very long time. This quintessentially human behavior bolsters social bonds in ways that would have been a great boon to the survival chances of an individual or tribe. 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Introduction Speech - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 3 Words: 833 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/09/17 Category People Essay Type Argumentative essay Did you like this example? INTRODUCTION SPEECH OUTLINE WORKSHEET ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ SPEECH TITLE : My remarkable Dad Name: Angela Hawley Topic: My Dad Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about how well my dad raised my sister and I and how much fun we had growing up with him. Thesis Statement: Three important things I will talk about involving my dad are how he always accepted everything, what it was like growing up with my dad and how my dad would keep us entertained. Briefly, what did you do to â€Å"adapt† to your audience? I thought since we are all new with each other and will only meet a few times, I would tell my audience a little bit of growing up with my dad. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I. Introduction Your goal here is to draw us into your speech A. Attention Material: Have you ever met someone who all they did was party, get drunk, and close the bar down every night with fist fights? B. Tie to Audience: I’m sure many of you have seen or heard of people just like this. In fact my dad was just this person 26 years ago before I was born. C. Credibility Material: I have been around my dad for many years now and am able to share my experiences with you that show how remarkable my dad was through the years. D. Thesis Preview: My dad completely changed his life the day I was born. No more drinking, fighting or closing the bar down. Shortly then after that my sister was born. He was and still is such a proud father of his beautiful little girls. We were daddies’ little princesses. I love and admire him for all of the wonderful things he has done for me. Let me share with you some of the remarkable things my dad did while I was growing up. II. Body A. Main Point #1 My dad always excepted everything no matter how huge the problem or situation was. 1. Subpoint #1 Finding out I was pregnant at 18. i. I was extremely nervous to tell my dad ii. I couldn’t even speak. iii. Finally I g ot the courage to tell him. 2. Subpoint #2 My dad was so disappointed. i. The dead was done. ii. Nothing could be changed from the position I put myself in to. iii. My dad then took the news in and started making Thanksgiving dinners every day! 3. Subpoint #3 My daughter Brooklyn being born and how it affected his life. Now that I have shared with you how well he can accept things no matter the situation, let me share with you how much fun it was growing up with my dad. B. Main Point #2 Growing up with my dad was the best! We had so much fun together. 1. Subpoint #1 We would have coloring contests. i. Really huge coloring books. 2. Subpoint #2 We would play board games. i. Sorry ii. Monopoly iii. Kings in the corner 3. Subpoint #3 Going to work with dad where he built and repaired silos. i. Petting the calves ii. Watching and chasing the baby kittens iii. Homemade fruit rollups from the farmers’ wives. Now that you know how much fun my sister and I had growing up with m y dad, let me share with you how he kept us entertained when he had very little or no sleep. C. Main Point #3 From working so much and being a single parent with no one to babysit us he was sometimes very very tired and was deprived of sleep. 1. Subpoint #1 Keeping us kids entertained i. We would color all over his arms and face with markers. ii. Put our little girl play makeup on his face. iii. Ponytails in his hair. 2. Subpoint #2 Sometimes in the process of bring entertained we would get interrupted. . There was a knock at the door. ii. The UPS man gave my dad the craziest look ever. iii. My dad then revealed himself in the mirrow. 3. Subpoint #3 He then discovered what his little princesses were up to while he was sound asleep. I. Discovered the magic marker on his face and arms II. We all laughed so hard together. I hope you enjoyed my stories about my dad and sister and I growing up together just as much as I did in real life. III. Conclusion A. Brakelight: My dad sure was one incredibly remarkable man through my childhood years and still to this day. B. Summary: I was able to share with you how well he was at accepting things. Also how much fun we all had together and what my dad would do to keep us entertained. C. Tie Back to Audience: I hope the next time you see me you will remember some of the wonderful memories I had with my dad. D. Concluding Memorable Remarks: I am very thankful to have such a wonderful role model in my life. He had taught me so many things in life. Whenever I have a question about something I call the one person I admire and love the most, my dad! Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Introduction Speech" essay for you Create order